The findings of a report on language use in the classroom provide valuable tips for teachers.
What is ‘language’?
How is language acquired and what role does it play in learning across the curriculum, in various teaching and learning contexts?
In the classroom, how do we think about “multilingualism”?
What are some of the challenges that learners and teachers face when using an additional language for learning and teaching?
How do the language practices of teachers and learners affect learning?
Some key findings
1. ‘Language’ is a complex concept
Terms related to language need to be considered very carefully. Learners may have two or more languages that they use in different contexts and for different purposes so it is not accurate to refer to any one of these as their “primary language”. With reference to multilingualism, a speaker of several languages may not be able to use each of these for the same function. Multilingualism can refer to the use of more than one language by one speaker or by a group. In a multilingual classroom, there may be many monolingual learners and in such a class power relations may favour speakers of the dominant language. Where learners have little or no access to dominant languages and discourses in their homes and communities, the school becomes a particularly significant language learning site.
2. Language teaching
The ways in which the primary language is taught in many classes observed does not contribute to the development of “academic skills” that could be used across the curriculum. In the teaching of African languages, the emphasis is often on form in both literature (eg. characteristic features of a short story) and grammar lessons (eg. formation of words). Emphasis on form in decontextualised grammar lessons and on language “routines” (particularly in primary school classes) is a feature of many of the language lessons in the additional language (English or Afrikaans). There are some exceptions, particularly in Grade 1 classes in which several teachers include activities that encouraged learner engagement with the language (discussing stories, etc.). Inadequate resources have a negative effect on what teachers could offer learners.
3. Language proficiency in the LOLT
With the exception of two rural primary schools in which learners used their primary language as the LOLT for the first few years of schooling, all learners in most of the schools visited are using an additional language as LOLT. Research undertaken in a number of African, Asian and South American countries suggests that where learners’ proficiency in the LOLT is limited, the quality and extent of learning may also be limited. The NCCRD researchers observed that in classroom contexts where teachers make use of the learners’ primary language to explain new and difficult concepts, learners participates more actively than in lessons where the interaction is in an unfamiliar language. Switching from the language used for teaching to the learners’ primary language enables teachers to provide explanations, give instructions or check learners’ understanding. Where this codeswitching does not happen, learning is sometimes affected negatively.
4. Whole class teaching
Most teachers use whole class teaching strategies. In many whole class lessons there are limited opportunities for learning. An example of good whole class teaching was:
Good opportunities for learning to talk and for learning from talk in a “whole class”, teacher-led lesson
Literature lesson in a Grade 11 class in a township school in which English is an additional language
Literature text: A short story titled Sorry Wrong Number by Lucille Fletcher
The teacher instructed a learner to give a short summary of the story. Then he introduced all the characters and the roles they played, in preparation for a role play activity. Learners were asked to picture a courtroom and themselves as witnesses who had to tell the court what happened on the day of the murder. When any witness was called forward the rest of the class were to act as the prosecution.
The teacher played a facilitating role, prompting when he felt that learners omitted important points. In most of the question-and-answer exchanges learners assisted one another and the teacher never interrupted learners. The fluency of learners and the high level of involvement in the lesson were impressive.
5. Group work
The researchers observed 20 lessons in which learners were placed in groups. They found that only five of these provided opportunities for learners to negotiate meaning and to construct their own knowledge. In the other lessons, teachers did not give sufficient guidance or set appropriate tasks. Where the tasks were uninteresting learners engaged in very little discussion. Below is an example of a successful group work lesson:
Working together to write a short story
Grade 8 English lesson in a suburban school in which 80% of learners speak English as primary language and 20% speak an African language as primary language The teacher led a discussion with the class in which they revised features of short stories. Then she divided learners into heterogeneous groups (“race”, gender, academic level) and allocated friends to different groups.
Task
In your group, write a short story that has all the elements of a short story. Do the following: elect a scribe; elect a leader; decide how many characters you want; decide on the setting; choose a theme.
Assessment
Marks will be given for the group’s effort and an individual mark for reading. The discussions in groups were mainly in English, though at times learners made comments in an African language. In groups where the majority spoke an African language, there was a tendency to make comments in an African language and the English-speaking learners would not be as active. Groups took a long time to decide what they wanted to write about. This lesson created an environment for interaction that could facilitate language learning.
Recommendations to teachers
On language
– Language development is the responsibility of every teacher.
– In all classrooms, but particularly in classrooms where the LOLT is an additional language, learners need support when teachers introduce new concepts and new vocabulary. This support can be given by
– the teacher codeswitching to the learners’ main language or inviting learners who understand the concept in the LOLT to switch to the main lan guage in order to explain to fellow learners;
– using illustrations or objects;
– drawing on the chalkboard to show the meanings of words or concepts;
– using several synonyms to help learners understand new vocabulary;
– giving learners tasks (such as simple experiments) which encourage them to develop understanding of new concepts;
– giving learners tasks that are interesting — the classroom “court scene” is an example of a task which is likely to help learners to understand a story and to practise using English in an unselfconscious way.
On group work
Group work activities can give opportunities for all learners to participate actively. However, group work tasks need to be carefully prepared and managed. Teachers need to ask themselves:
– What is the purpose of asking learners to work in groups?
– What prior knowledge and skills do learners need in order to complete the task successfully?
– What kinds of tasks are likely to interest learners and encourage them to work in groups rather than individually?
– How should the groups be organised? This involves making decisions about whether learners are likely to benefit more from working in “mixed ability” or “same ability” groups, working with close friends or with learners whom they know less well or a “mix” of the two. Groups should not be too large, in order to encourage everyone to participate — five is usually considered the maximum number for group work.
– What instructions do learners need? How can these instructions be given clearly? For example, if the teacher writes clear instructions on the chalk-board, all learners can refer to these while they are working.
– What will help learners complete the task successfully? For example, it may be productive for group members to discuss the task in their primary language or to codeswitch between languages. For some tasks learners need print materials or pictures or equipment/objects with which to do experiments.
– How will learners demonstrate what they have achieved? For example, theshort story writing group had to produce a completed story. (This would probably take several lessons to plan, write and edit.) If the task is to answer a set of questions, then there needs to be a report-back session in which at least some groups share their answers with the class so that the teacher can correct inaccurate ones. It is often important that each learner has a “record” of the task. When this is the case, each group member should write notes. Too often it is only the scribe who leaves the class with any record of the learning!
About the language in the classroom research project
In 1999 researchers from the National Centre for Curriculum Research and Development (NCCRD) participated in a project in which they aimed to:
– discover the views of language experts on
* the needs of learners and educators in relation to language in education, and
* the Language-in-Education Policy;
– establish what language-related developmental models are available for implementing the policy;
– observe a number of learning sites in order to understand the roles of language in education.
The research focused on the role of language in learning in two contexts:
– classrooms in which learners are learning through an additional language (the Language of Learning and Teaching [LOLT] which is not the primary language of the learners) and
– classrooms in which the learners speak a range of primary languages (“multilingual classrooms”).
– The Teacher/Mail & Guardian, April 12, 2000.
Adapted from the NCCRD report by Yvonne Reed, Department of Applied English Language Studies, University of the Witwatersrand
For more information contact: Brenda Leibowitz (012) 312 5109, Thobs Gamede (012) 312 5260, Phil Mnisi (012) 312 5136 or e-mail: [email protected]
The full report is available from:
the NCCRD
123 Schoeman Street
Room 223
Pretoria
or
Private Bag X895
Pretoria
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