There are thought to be at least 50 000 informal miners working underground in South Africa

The single narrative of these miners as criminals in mainstream and social media ‘makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult’

Association says the government does not ‘have the will to act’ and the solution is regulation to allow artisanal miners to work legally

Road and water infrastructure, largely in the central, south and west of Johannesburg, is being damaged

The displacement of illegal artisanal mining gangs by the police causes the miners to flee to other areas, resulting in violent turf wars that spill over into neighbouring areas

They scour mine dumps on the West Rand for gold

The informal economy around zama zama mining has replaced that of large-scale mining companies that have abandoned or closed their mines

The police say that allegations of complicity by some officers in the service are common and called for people to come forward with evidence

It is the result of the state’s failure to formalise artisanal mining as a livelihood strategy and the police’s inability or unwillingness to control

But anger over human rights abuses in the ruby-rich province fuels resentment and insurgency