Road and water infrastructure, largely in the central, south and west of Johannesburg, is being damaged
The displacement of illegal artisanal mining gangs by the police causes the miners to flee to other areas, resulting in violent turf wars that spill over into neighbouring areas
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They scour mine dumps on the West Rand for gold
The informal economy around zama zama mining has replaced that of large-scale mining companies that have abandoned or closed their mines
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The police say that allegations of complicity by some officers in the service are common and called for people to come forward with evidence
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It is the result of the state’s failure to formalise artisanal mining as a livelihood strategy and the police’s inability or unwillingness to control
But anger over human rights abuses in the ruby-rich province fuels resentment and insurgency